Spartan Diesel Technologies faced legal repercussions for selling “defeat devices,” leading to its chief, Matthew Sidney Geourge, receiving a jail sentence and the company incurring hefty fines. This article from pioneer-technology.com explores the details of the case, the implications for the automotive industry, and the broader crackdown on emissions defeat devices. Stay informed about automotive technology and environmental compliance, ensuring you’re up-to-date with the latest industry news and developments.
1. What Were Spartan Diesel Technologies Known For?
Spartan Diesel Technologies was known for selling “defeat devices” that bypassed the emissions systems in Ford F-Series trucks. These devices allowed users to disable emissions controls, often resulting in increased power and the ability to produce large clouds of black smoke, a practice known as “rolling coal.”
To understand what Spartan Diesel Technologies was doing, it is essential to consider several aspects. Spartan Diesel Technologies specialized in creating and selling aftermarket systems, which were primarily designed to override or disable the emission control systems installed in Ford F-Series trucks equipped with 6.4-liter Power Stroke diesel engines. These defeat devices allowed users to tamper with the vehicles’ emission settings, leading to increased horsepower and the ability to perform “rolling coal,” where vehicles emit significant black smoke. The company’s most popular product was the Phalanx device, which enabled users to make such modifications. However, these actions violated the U.S. Clean Air Act, as emission control systems are put in place to reduce air pollution and protect public health.
1.1 What Is “Rolling Coal?”
“Rolling coal” refers to the practice of modifying diesel engines to emit large plumes of black smoke. This is typically achieved by tampering with the engine’s fuel-to-air ratio, causing incomplete combustion and resulting in the release of soot and particulate matter.
“Rolling coal” is a controversial practice deeply rooted in both automotive culture and political expression. It involves altering the engine of a diesel vehicle to intentionally produce thick, black smoke clouds. This is achieved by modifying the fuel-to-air ratio, leading to incomplete combustion and a significant release of particulate matter into the atmosphere. This action is viewed by many as a deliberate form of environmental pollution, as the emitted smoke contains harmful substances that can negatively impact air quality and human health. From a cultural perspective, “rolling coal” is often seen as a form of rebellion or protest against environmental regulations. Some vehicle owners engage in this practice to express their defiance of government policies aimed at reducing emissions and combating climate change. Others do it purely for the spectacle, enjoying the visual impact of the large smoke clouds.
Spartan Diesel Tech coal roller two
1.2 What Were “Defeat Devices?”
“Defeat devices” are systems designed to disable or bypass emissions controls in vehicles. These devices allow vehicles to pass emissions tests while still emitting pollutants at higher levels during normal operation.
“Defeat devices” represent a significant challenge to environmental regulatory efforts. These sophisticated tools are designed to circumvent or disable the standard emission control systems installed in vehicles. By manipulating engine settings, these devices allow vehicles to pass mandatory emission tests successfully. However, during regular operation, the vehicles emit pollutants at levels far exceeding legal limits. The purpose of these devices is often to increase the vehicle’s performance, such as enhancing horsepower or fuel efficiency. However, this comes at the expense of increased environmental pollution. The use of “defeat devices” is illegal in many countries because it undermines efforts to improve air quality and reduce the health impacts of vehicle emissions. Regulatory agencies worldwide are actively working to detect and penalize the use of such devices to protect public health and the environment.
2. What Legal Issues Did Spartan Diesel Technologies Face?
Spartan Diesel Technologies faced legal action for violating the U.S. Clean Air Act by selling “defeat devices.” The company’s chief, Matthew Sidney Geourge, was sentenced to jail time, and the company was fined $2 million.
The legal issues that Spartan Diesel Technologies faced were substantial and multifaceted. The primary charge against the company was violating the U.S. Clean Air Act, which sets standards for air quality and regulates emissions from various sources, including vehicles. By selling and distributing “defeat devices,” Spartan Diesel Technologies enabled vehicle owners to bypass these emission control systems, causing increased pollution and non-compliance with environmental regulations. This led to serious legal consequences for both the company and its chief, Matthew Sidney Geourge. The U.S. Department of Justice pursued the case, resulting in Geourge being sentenced to a year and a day in jail, a significant penalty reflecting the severity of the violation. In addition to the jail time, Spartan Diesel Technologies was hit with a $2 million fine, further emphasizing the legal ramifications of their actions. The case also extended beyond environmental violations, as Geourge faced accusations of tax evasion.
2.1 What Was the U.S. Clean Air Act?
The U.S. Clean Air Act is a federal law designed to protect air quality by regulating emissions from various sources, including vehicles and industrial facilities. It sets standards for air pollutants and mandates the use of emission control technologies.
The U.S. Clean Air Act stands as a cornerstone of environmental regulation in the United States, with a history dating back to its initial enactment in 1963 and significant amendments in 1970 and 1990. The primary goal of the Clean Air Act is to protect and improve air quality across the nation by regulating emissions from a wide range of sources. These sources include stationary sources such as industrial facilities and power plants, as well as mobile sources like cars, trucks, and other vehicles. The Act establishes National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for six common air pollutants, also known as criteria pollutants, which are harmful to public health and the environment. These pollutants include particulate matter, ozone, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, and lead. The Act requires states to develop and implement State Implementation Plans (SIPs) to achieve and maintain these standards.
2.2 What Were the Penalties for Violating the Clean Air Act?
Penalties for violating the Clean Air Act can include fines, civil penalties, and criminal charges. The EPA can impose fines of up to $4,819 per defeat device manufactured, sold, or installed.
Violating the Clean Air Act can result in significant penalties, reflecting the seriousness with which environmental regulations are enforced in the United States. The penalties are designed to deter non-compliance and ensure that companies and individuals adhere to the Act’s standards for air quality and emissions control. These penalties can take various forms, including civil fines, criminal charges, and other enforcement actions. Civil fines are monetary penalties imposed for non-compliance with the Clean Air Act’s regulations. The amount of the fine can vary depending on the nature and severity of the violation, as well as factors such as the violator’s history of compliance and efforts to mitigate the harm caused by the violation. The EPA has the authority to assess these fines and can pursue legal action to collect them. Criminal charges can be brought against individuals or companies who knowingly violate the Clean Air Act.
Spartan Diesel Tech coal roller three
3. How Did Spartan Diesel Technologies Try To Evade The EPA?
According to the Department of Justice, Matthew Sidney Geourge attempted to evade the EPA by purportedly selling Spartan Diesel Technologies to another firm called Patriot Diagnostics.
Matthew Sidney Geourge’s attempts to evade the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) involved a series of strategic maneuvers aimed at shielding Spartan Diesel Technologies from regulatory scrutiny and financial penalties. According to the Department of Justice, one of the primary tactics Geourge employed was the purported sale of Spartan Diesel Technologies to another firm called Patriot Diagnostics. This move was allegedly designed to create the appearance that Spartan Diesel Technologies was no longer under Geourge’s control, thereby evading responsibility for past violations and outstanding fines. By transferring ownership to Patriot Diagnostics, Geourge may have hoped to distance himself and Spartan Diesel Technologies from the legal and financial repercussions of selling “defeat devices.”
3.1 What Was Patriot Diagnostics?
Patriot Diagnostics was the firm to which Matthew Sidney Geourge purportedly sold Spartan Diesel Technologies in an attempt to evade EPA fines. The details and legitimacy of this sale were questioned by the Department of Justice.
Patriot Diagnostics played a significant role in the legal proceedings involving Spartan Diesel Technologies, primarily as the alleged recipient of Spartan Diesel Technologies in a purported sale orchestrated by Matthew Sidney Geourge. According to the Department of Justice, this sale was a strategic maneuver designed to evade the EPA’s fines and regulatory oversight. The core issue was whether the sale to Patriot Diagnostics was a legitimate business transaction or merely a deceptive tactic to shield Spartan Diesel Technologies from its legal and financial obligations. The Department of Justice questioned the authenticity of the sale, suggesting that it was a sham transaction intended to create the illusion that Spartan Diesel Technologies was no longer under Geourge’s control. If the sale was indeed a fraudulent attempt to evade penalties, it would expose Geourge to additional legal consequences, including charges related to obstruction of justice and further violations of environmental regulations.
3.2 What Other Penalties Did Geourge Face?
In addition to jail time and fines related to the Clean Air Act violations, Matthew Sidney Geourge faced an additional $1.2 million bill from the IRS for tax evasion.
In addition to the immediate penalties related to Clean Air Act violations, Matthew Sidney Geourge faced significant long-term consequences, including financial strain, reputational damage, and potential difficulties in future business ventures. The $1.2 million bill from the IRS for tax evasion represents a substantial financial burden. This debt would likely accrue interest and penalties over time, making it even more challenging to repay. Geourge might need to liquidate assets, restructure finances, or face further legal actions, such as liens on property or garnishment of wages, to satisfy the debt. The conviction and associated penalties have likely caused significant damage to Geourge’s reputation within the automotive and business communities. This reputational damage could make it difficult to secure future employment, obtain financing for business ventures, or attract investors.
4. What Other Companies Sold Similar Devices?
Other companies, such as EZ Lynk, have also sold tuner devices that disable emissions components. EZ Lynk was sued for failing to cooperate with an EPA investigation.
EZ Lynk is a company that has been involved in the aftermarket automotive industry, particularly known for its development and sale of tuner devices designed for diesel vehicles. These tuner devices allow users to modify various parameters of their vehicle’s engine control unit (ECU), such as fuel injection, timing, and turbocharger settings. While such modifications can potentially enhance a vehicle’s performance, they also carry the risk of impacting emissions and overall engine reliability. EZ Lynk’s products have gained popularity among diesel enthusiasts seeking to optimize their vehicle’s performance. However, like other companies in the tuner device market, EZ Lynk has faced scrutiny from regulatory agencies, including the EPA, due to concerns about the potential for emissions violations.
4.1 How Did These Devices Affect Vehicle Emissions?
These devices often disable critical emissions control components, such as diesel particulate filters (DPFs) and catalytic converters, leading to significantly higher levels of pollutants being released into the atmosphere.
The impact of these devices on vehicle emissions is substantial and adverse, primarily due to their ability to disable or bypass critical emission control components. These components are designed to reduce the amount of harmful pollutants released into the atmosphere, but when they are disabled, the vehicle’s emissions can increase dramatically. One of the most commonly disabled components is the diesel particulate filter (DPF). DPFs are designed to trap particulate matter, or soot, from the exhaust gas of diesel engines. By trapping these particles, DPFs prevent them from being released into the air, thereby reducing air pollution and improving air quality. When a defeat device disables the DPF, the vehicle emits significantly higher levels of particulate matter, contributing to respiratory problems and other health issues.
4.2 What Is a Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF)?
A diesel particulate filter (DPF) is a device designed to remove particulate matter or soot from the exhaust gas of a diesel engine, reducing air pollution.
A diesel particulate filter (DPF) is an essential component of modern diesel engine technology, designed to significantly reduce the emission of particulate matter, or soot, from exhaust gases. These filters play a critical role in minimizing air pollution and improving air quality. The primary function of a DPF is to trap and store particulate matter as exhaust gases flow through it. The filter is typically made of a ceramic material with a honeycomb structure, providing a large surface area for trapping particles. As exhaust gas passes through the filter, the soot particles are captured in the small channels, preventing them from being released into the atmosphere. Over time, the accumulated soot needs to be removed from the filter to maintain its efficiency. This process is known as regeneration.
Spartan Diesel Tech rolling coal four
5. What Is the Government Doing About “Rolling Coal?”
The federal government has increased its crackdown on both tuners and individual diesel owners who engage in “rolling coal.” The EPA can impose significant fines for manufacturing, selling, or installing defeat devices and for tampering with vehicles.
The federal government’s response to “rolling coal” has been marked by increasing scrutiny and enforcement actions aimed at curbing this environmentally harmful practice. Recognizing the adverse impacts of “rolling coal” on air quality and public health, regulatory agencies such as the EPA have stepped up their efforts to target both the manufacturers and sellers of defeat devices, as well as individual vehicle owners who engage in tampering with their vehicles. The EPA has the authority to impose significant fines on those who violate the Clean Air Act by manufacturing, selling, or installing defeat devices. These fines can be substantial, serving as a deterrent to prevent companies from producing and distributing devices that bypass emission control systems. In addition to fines, the EPA can also pursue civil penalties against individuals or companies who tamper with vehicles by removing or disabling emission control equipment.
5.1 How Much Are the Fines for Tampering?
As of January 13, 2020, a person may be liable for a maximum civil penalty of $4,819 per defeat device manufactured, sold, or installed, or per vehicle tampered.
As of January 13, 2020, the EPA has set a maximum civil penalty of $4,819 per defeat device manufactured, sold, or installed, as well as per vehicle tampered with. This penalty serves as a significant deterrent to prevent individuals and companies from engaging in activities that undermine air quality and environmental regulations. The imposition of such a substantial fine underscores the EPA’s commitment to enforcing the Clean Air Act and holding violators accountable for their actions. The penalty is designed to discourage the production, distribution, and use of defeat devices, which are designed to bypass or disable emission control systems in vehicles. By targeting both the manufacturers and installers of these devices, the EPA aims to eliminate the supply and demand for products that contribute to increased air pollution.
5.2 Why Is “Rolling Coal” Harmful?
“Rolling coal” is harmful because it releases large amounts of particulate matter and other pollutants into the air, contributing to air pollution, respiratory problems, and other health issues. It also reflects a disregard for environmental regulations and public health.
“Rolling coal” is harmful for a multitude of reasons, primarily due to its detrimental effects on air quality, public health, and the environment. This practice involves modifying diesel engines to intentionally emit thick plumes of black smoke, which contain high concentrations of particulate matter and other harmful pollutants. These pollutants have a range of adverse effects on both human health and the environment. The emission of large amounts of particulate matter is one of the most significant consequences of “rolling coal.” Particulate matter consists of microscopic particles that can be inhaled deep into the lungs, causing respiratory problems such as asthma, bronchitis, and other lung diseases. Prolonged exposure to high levels of particulate matter can also contribute to cardiovascular issues and increase the risk of premature death.
6. What Does This Case Signify for the Automotive Industry?
This case signifies an increased focus on enforcing emissions regulations and holding companies and individuals accountable for violating the Clean Air Act. It serves as a warning to other companies that may be selling or considering selling similar devices.
The case involving Spartan Diesel Technologies sends a powerful message to the automotive industry and highlights the increasing importance of compliance with emissions regulations. This case serves as a stern reminder that companies and individuals will be held accountable for violating the Clean Air Act and that the consequences for non-compliance can be severe. By prosecuting Spartan Diesel Technologies and its chief, Matthew Sidney Geourge, the U.S. Department of Justice has demonstrated its commitment to enforcing environmental laws and protecting public health. This increased focus on enforcement is likely to deter other companies from engaging in similar activities and encourage them to prioritize compliance with emissions regulations.
6.1 What Is the Role of the EPA in Regulating Emissions?
The EPA plays a crucial role in regulating emissions by setting standards for air pollutants, monitoring compliance, and enforcing environmental regulations. It works to ensure that vehicles and industries adhere to the Clean Air Act.
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) plays a pivotal role in regulating emissions from various sources, including vehicles, industrial facilities, and power plants, to protect air quality and public health. The EPA’s regulatory authority is primarily derived from the Clean Air Act, which mandates the agency to establish and enforce standards for air pollutants. One of the EPA’s primary responsibilities is to set National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for six common air pollutants, known as criteria pollutants, which are harmful to human health and the environment. These pollutants include particulate matter, ozone, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, and lead. The EPA also regulates emissions from mobile sources, such as cars, trucks, and other vehicles, to ensure that they meet stringent emission standards. The agency sets emission standards for new vehicles and requires manufacturers to install emission control technologies, such as catalytic converters and diesel particulate filters, to reduce the release of pollutants into the atmosphere.
6.2 What Are the Implications for Aftermarket Tuners?
The implications for aftermarket tuners are that they must ensure their products comply with emissions regulations. The government is cracking down on devices that disable emissions controls, and tuners risk fines and legal action if they sell non-compliant products.
The implications for aftermarket tuners are significant, particularly in light of increased regulatory scrutiny and enforcement actions related to emissions compliance. Aftermarket tuners are companies that modify or enhance vehicle performance through the installation of aftermarket parts and software modifications. While some of these modifications are designed to improve fuel efficiency or increase horsepower, others may have the unintended consequence of increasing emissions or disabling emission control systems. The government is cracking down on devices that disable emissions controls, and tuners risk fines and legal action if they sell non-compliant products. The EPA has the authority to impose substantial fines on companies that manufacture, sell, or install defeat devices, which are designed to bypass or disable emission control systems.
7. How Does This Relate To The Volkswagen Emissions Scandal?
This case is similar to the Volkswagen emissions scandal in that both involve the use of devices to circumvent emissions regulations. However, the Volkswagen scandal was much larger in scale and involved a major automaker.
The case involving Spartan Diesel Technologies shares similarities with the Volkswagen emissions scandal in that both involve the use of devices to circumvent emissions regulations, but there are also key differences in scale, scope, and the nature of the violations. In both cases, companies were found to have used devices or software to bypass or disable emission control systems in vehicles, leading to increased levels of air pollution. Spartan Diesel Technologies sold “defeat devices” that allowed users to disable emissions controls in Ford F-Series trucks, while Volkswagen used software to cheat on emissions tests in millions of diesel vehicles worldwide. However, the Volkswagen scandal was much larger in scale and involved a major automaker. Volkswagen’s emissions cheating affected millions of vehicles worldwide and resulted in billions of dollars in fines and settlements. The Spartan Diesel Technologies case, while significant, involved a smaller company and a more limited number of vehicles.
7.1 What Was the Volkswagen Emissions Scandal?
The Volkswagen emissions scandal, also known as “Dieselgate,” was a major environmental scandal in which Volkswagen used software to cheat on emissions tests in millions of diesel vehicles worldwide.
The Volkswagen emissions scandal, widely known as “Dieselgate,” stands as one of the most significant environmental scandals in automotive history. The scandal came to light in September 2015 when the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) issued a notice of violation to Volkswagen Group, alleging that the automaker had intentionally programmed diesel vehicles to activate emission controls only during laboratory testing. This meant that the vehicles met U.S. emissions standards during testing but emitted significantly higher levels of pollutants, particularly nitrogen oxides (NOx), during normal driving conditions. The affected vehicles were equipped with a sophisticated software algorithm, often referred to as a “defeat device,” which could detect when the vehicle was undergoing emissions testing. During these tests, the software would activate all emission control systems, ensuring that the vehicle met the required standards. However, under normal driving conditions, the software would reduce or disable these emission controls, allowing the vehicle to achieve better fuel economy and performance but at the cost of significantly increased emissions.
7.2 What Were the Consequences for Volkswagen?
The consequences for Volkswagen included billions of dollars in fines, settlements, and vehicle recalls. The scandal also damaged the company’s reputation and led to significant changes in leadership.
The consequences for Volkswagen in the wake of the emissions scandal were far-reaching and multifaceted, impacting the company’s finances, reputation, and organizational structure. The scandal resulted in billions of dollars in fines and settlements, making it one of the most expensive corporate scandals in history. Volkswagen faced criminal and civil penalties from regulatory agencies in the United States, Europe, and other countries. The company was required to pay billions of dollars in fines to settle these charges and compensate consumers who had purchased affected vehicles. In addition to fines and settlements, Volkswagen was also required to recall millions of vehicles worldwide to fix the emissions issue. The recall involved reprogramming the engine control unit (ECU) to ensure that the vehicles met emissions standards under all driving conditions.
8. What Can Individuals Do To Reduce Vehicle Emissions?
Individuals can reduce vehicle emissions by maintaining their vehicles, driving efficiently, using public transportation, and choosing fuel-efficient or electric vehicles.
Individuals can play a crucial role in reducing vehicle emissions through a combination of responsible driving habits, proper vehicle maintenance, and informed purchasing decisions. By adopting these practices, individuals can contribute to cleaner air and a healthier environment. Regular vehicle maintenance is essential for ensuring that vehicles operate efficiently and produce minimal emissions. This includes following the manufacturer’s recommended maintenance schedule, which typically includes regular oil changes, tune-ups, and inspections of emission control systems. Properly maintained vehicles are more fuel-efficient and produce fewer pollutants.
8.1 What Is Efficient Driving?
Efficient driving involves techniques such as maintaining a steady speed, avoiding rapid acceleration and braking, and minimizing idling to reduce fuel consumption and emissions.
Efficient driving, also known as eco-driving, is a set of techniques and practices that can significantly reduce fuel consumption and emissions while improving safety on the road. By adopting these driving habits, individuals can save money on fuel costs, minimize their environmental impact, and contribute to a more sustainable transportation system. Maintaining a steady speed is one of the most effective ways to improve fuel efficiency. Avoiding rapid acceleration and deceleration can also help to conserve fuel. When accelerating, do so gradually and smoothly rather than flooring the gas pedal. Similarly, when braking, anticipate stops and slow down gradually instead of slamming on the brakes. Minimizing idling is another key aspect of efficient driving. When stopped for more than a few seconds, it’s generally more fuel-efficient to turn off the engine rather than let it idle. Idling consumes fuel without moving the vehicle, resulting in unnecessary emissions.
8.2 What Are the Benefits of Electric Vehicles?
Electric vehicles (EVs) produce zero tailpipe emissions, reducing air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. They also offer lower running costs due to cheaper electricity compared to gasoline.
Electric vehicles (EVs) offer numerous benefits compared to traditional gasoline-powered vehicles, making them an increasingly attractive option for environmentally conscious consumers. One of the most significant advantages of EVs is their ability to reduce air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. Unlike gasoline-powered vehicles, EVs produce zero tailpipe emissions, meaning they do not directly release pollutants such as carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, particulate matter, and hydrocarbons into the atmosphere. EVs rely on electricity to power their motors, which can be generated from a variety of sources, including renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, and hydroelectric power. When EVs are powered by renewable energy, their overall carbon footprint is significantly reduced, making them a more sustainable transportation option.
9. How Can Pioneer-Technology.Com Help You Stay Informed?
Pioneer-technology.com provides in-depth analysis and easy-to-understand explanations of pioneering technologies, keeping you updated on the latest trends and innovations.
At pioneer-technology.com, we are dedicated to providing you with in-depth analysis and clear, accessible explanations of the latest pioneering technologies. Our goal is to keep you well-informed about the newest trends and innovations shaping our world. We understand that the world of technology can be complex and fast-paced, which is why we strive to break down complicated concepts into understandable terms. Whether you are a tech enthusiast, a professional in the industry, or simply curious about the future of technology, pioneer-technology.com is your go-to source for reliable and engaging content. Our team of experts works tirelessly to research and analyze emerging technologies, providing you with insights that you won’t find anywhere else.
Stay ahead of the curve by exploring our articles, reviews, and analyses on a wide range of topics, including artificial intelligence, renewable energy, and more. Visit pioneer-technology.com today to start your journey of discovery!
Address: 450 Serra Mall, Stanford, CA 94305, United States. Phone: +1 (650) 723-2300. Website: pioneer-technology.com.
Spartan Diesel Tech coal roller three
10. FAQs About Spartan Diesel Technologies
10.1 What Was the Main Product of Spartan Diesel Technologies?
The main product was the Phalanx device, which allowed users to disable emissions controls on Ford diesel trucks.
10.2 Why Was Matthew Sidney Geourge Sentenced to Jail?
He was sentenced to jail for violating the Clean Air Act by selling “defeat devices.”
10.3 How Much Was Spartan Diesel Technologies Fined?
The company was fined $2 million.
10.4 What Is a “Defeat Device?”
A “defeat device” is a system designed to disable or bypass emissions controls in vehicles.
10.5 What Is “Rolling Coal?”
“Rolling coal” is the practice of modifying diesel engines to emit large plumes of black smoke.
10.6 What Does the EPA Do?
The EPA sets standards for air pollutants, monitors compliance, and enforces environmental regulations.
10.7 What Is a Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF)?
A DPF is a device designed to remove particulate matter from the exhaust gas of a diesel engine.
10.8 How Can Individuals Reduce Vehicle Emissions?
Individuals can reduce emissions by maintaining their vehicles, driving efficiently, and choosing fuel-efficient vehicles.
10.9 What Other Companies Faced Similar Legal Issues?
EZ Lynk was sued for failing to cooperate with an EPA investigation.
10.10 What Should Aftermarket Tuners Do to Avoid Legal Issues?
Aftermarket tuners should ensure their products comply with emissions regulations.
