Seattle’s Pioneer Building, prominently situated at the northeast corner of 1st Avenue and James Street, stands as the inaugural landmark in a trio of legacy structures erected by Seattle luminary Henry Yesler (1810-1892) in the aftermath of the Great Seattle Fire of June 1889. Masterfully conceived by architect Elmer H. Fisher (1840-1905), this iconic edifice embodies the architectural metamorphosis from Victorian aesthetics to the Romanesque Revival style, a defining characteristic of Seattle’s commercial architecture in the wake of the devastating fire.
The Pioneer Building gazes upon Pioneer Square, formerly known as Pioneer Place, and became a symbol of the historic preservation movement that swept through the 1960s. This movement culminated in the establishment of the Pioneer Square Historic District in 1970, safeguarding a crucial piece of Seattle’s heritage. During the early 1970s, the Theta Corporation, under the guidance of architect Ralph Anderson (d. 2010), meticulously rehabilitated the Pioneer Building, breathing new life into its historic framework. Today, the building serves as a living monument to Seattle entrepreneur Henry Yesler and, by extension, to Seattle’s pioneering spirit. It stands as a testament to Victorian craftsmanship, hand-built yet ingeniously adapted to the stringent building codes of 1889 and the prevailing national Romanesque Revival architectural trends for commercial buildings. Renowned for its exuberant ornamentation and intricate design, both internally and externally, the Pioneer Building remains one of Seattle’s most cherished historic landmarks. Both the building itself and the Pioneer Square Historic District hold esteemed positions on the National Register of Historic Places, solidifying their significance in American history and architecture.
Henry Yesler: Pioneer Builder Forged in Fire
By 1889, Henry Yesler was no stranger to Seattle. For 37 years, he had been instrumental in shaping the city, nurturing his Puget Sound sawmill, established in 1852-1853, and fostering Seattle’s burgeoning growth. His initial sawmill, located at the present-day intersection of Yesler Way and Post Avenue, was then at the water’s edge, with Yesler’s wharf extending westward into the Puget Sound. The mill’s cookhouse, constructed from hewn logs in 1852, stood on Commercial Street (now 1st Avenue S), nestled between contemporary Yesler Way and Washington Street. This first cookhouse succumbed to flames in July 1866 but was promptly rebuilt at the southeast corner of Commercial Street and Yesler Way, eventually becoming known as Yesler Hall. In 1868, Yesler expanded his industrial footprint, constructing a new sawmill west of the original, stretching towards the deep waters on land reclaimed from the initial mill’s operations. The older mill was subsequently dismantled, and its site repurposed for a series of single-story buildings housing the post office and various commercial establishments. By 1870, Yesler’s Hall underwent a transformation, partitioned into office spaces. The half-open pavilion, erected in 1865 at the southeast corner of Cherry Street and 1st Avenue for a Fourth of July ball, was enclosed and repurposed as the new Yesler Hall.
On July 26, 1879, disaster struck when a major fire erupted in the American House, a hotel situated on Yesler Way, just east of what would become Railroad Avenue, now Alaskan Way. The Seattle Sawmill, Yesler’s second mill, was consumed by the inferno, along with numerous other businesses. Undeterred, Yesler commissioned J. M. Colman to rebuild the sawmill on the tide flats approximately half a mile to the south. In 1882, Yesler constructed yet another mill on his wharf, where Railroad Avenue would later be established. During 1882-1883, he also engaged William E. Boone (1830-1921) of Boone & Meeker to erect an elegant Victorian commercial block (constructed of wood) at the northwest corner of Yesler and 1st Avenue. This structure stood on land encompassing the contentious “bump” between Commercial Street and Front Street (now 1st Avenue), which had been impeding traffic flow between the original Maynard and Denny plats. This building became known as the Yesler-Leary Building. Subsequently, he commissioned Boone, then Seattle’s preeminent architect, to design a new residence for him—the largest in town at the time. Completed in 1884, this grand home occupied the entire block from James to Jefferson, and from 3rd to 4th streets, but tragically burned down in 1901. The Yesler family had resided at the northeast corner of Front and James since the 1850s. By 1888, Yesler Hall had been repurposed into a photography gallery, offices, and storage space, marking a period of transition before Yesler’s most ambitious project.
In 1889, Yesler was poised to embark on the construction of the Pioneer Building, envisioned as the pinnacle of his Seattle career. For this landmark project, he enlisted the recently arrived architect Elmer H. Fisher. The initial blueprint envisioned a structure half the size of the eventual building, located solely on the corner of Front and James streets. Excavation had commenced when, on June 6, 1889, the Great Fire of Seattle erupted, engulfing the entire early commercial district from Madison Street south to the waterfront near Jackson Street, and extending eastward from Elliott Bay to approximately today’s 4th Avenue. Miraculously, Henry Yesler’s residence was spared, and a few stone buildings withstood the flames. However, at the corner of Front and James and Commercial streets, only the excavation site for the Pioneer Building remained amidst the devastation. Remarkably, Elmer Fisher’s architectural drawings survived the fire, preserved in a safe he had recently acquired. Many of these invaluable drawings are now housed in the University of Washington Libraries Special Collections, providing a glimpse into the building’s original design and the architectural vision of the time.
Yesler had already established a new sawmill outside of town on Union Bay and had diversified his business interests over the years, serving as a Wells Fargo agent, postmaster, and host. He had also held public office and invested in water supply and real estate ventures. In the aftermath of the Great Fire, Yesler, in concert with numerous other Seattleites, was resolute in rebuilding with stone and brick, embracing more fire-resistant construction methods. Heeding the call of civic boosters, they engaged Reginald M. Thomson (1856-1949) to replat 1st Avenue, undertake filling and regrading of the old commercial district, and, ultimately, to persuade Yesler to sell the crucial corner lot at Front and James and Commercial streets to the city for the creation of a park. This park was intended to ensure uninterrupted traffic flow on 1st Avenue, resolving the previous bottleneck. Negotiations for the park’s acquisition extended for a considerable period, delaying the construction of the three new Yesler buildings surrounding it for over a year. Consequently, Yesler himself, who passed away in 1892, did not witness the complete realization of all three buildings and the park, a testament to the long-term impact of his vision.
Following the Great Fire, the City of Seattle enacted a new building ordinance (No. 1147, July 1889), dictating the reconstruction of the commercial district. Elmer Fisher, already the most sought-after architect in the commercial sector, adapted his Victorian architectural approach, incorporating Romanesque Revival elements in response to the new regulations and evolving aesthetic preferences. The Pioneer Building, initially conceived before the fire and the subsequent building ordinance, serves as a prime example of the architectural transition occurring in Fisher’s designs and those of his contemporaries in the area. It showcases the shift from predominantly Victorian styles to the emerging Romanesque Revival aesthetic in commercial architecture.
A Lasting Legacy of Seattle Pioneers
Architectural historians Oschner and Anderson propose that this stylistic shift may have been driven less by adherence to a national trend in commercial building design and more by the pursuit of “an appropriate architectural solution within these constraints to the design of masonry commercial architecture” (Oschner and Anderson, Seattle, 67). The Pioneer Building, alongside the Bank of Commerce Building (now Yesler Building) and the first floor of the Mutual Life Building (formerly the Yesler Block), not only harmonized with each other but collectively exemplified this architectural evolution. The Pioneer Building exhibits a predominantly Victorian design, while the Mutual Life Building, the last of the three to be completed under a succession of architects, represents a more mature interpretation of the Romanesque Revival commercial building style championed by John Wellborn Root (1850-1891), a leading Chicago architect from the firm Burnham and Root.
From an external perspective, the Pioneer Building presents itself today as a symmetrical block. However, the original design envisioned a narrower structure, only 67 feet wide. The tower, intended to mark the center of the facade on Front Street (1st Avenue), was initially conceived as the northwest corner of the building. In the aftermath of the fire, the design was expanded, and the building ultimately filled the entire lot in two distinct sections, separated by a firewall. The tower above the main entrance on Front Street sustained damage in the 1949 earthquake and was subsequently removed, altering the building’s silhouette. The three bays—at the front, corner, and James Street entrance—were constructed of cast iron, a detail still visible today, adding to the building’s historical texture. The exterior walls were built with Bellingham Bay gray sandstone on the ground floor and red brick on the upper stories, creating a visually appealing contrast. The street facades were divided into vertical bays, a conventional feature of Victorian design, reflecting the architectural norms of the era. The exterior arched entrances, the layered stone in alternating broad and narrow courses on the first floor, and similar features showcased Romanesque Revival influences, adding a layer of stylistic sophistication. With a construction cost of $250,000, the Pioneer Building was the most expensive building of its time, reflecting its ambition and grandeur. Erected on the very site of Henry and Sarah Yesler’s home throughout Seattle’s pioneer period, the Pioneer Building was intended as a lasting legacy for the city and a tribute to its early pioneers, embodying their spirit of resilience and progress.
Internally, the building was bisected by the firewall, positioned just to the left of the main Front Street entrance. Arched openings on each floor provided connectivity between the two sections, facilitating internal movement. Elevators and a staircase were accessible from the main lobby, offering vertical circulation. Each side of the building enveloped a central skylit atrium, extending from the second floor to the roof, bathing the interior spaces in natural light. The 185 office rooms, as they were then termed, were illuminated by these skylights through windows lining the corridors. The glass in these windows and the door windows further diffused light throughout the five-story open space, creating an airy and inviting atmosphere. The street-level floor was designed with a more enclosed layout, catering to banks and retail establishments, ensuring security and functionality. The basement, which originally housed the barber shop of Von Dungen & Crahlman, featured a separate street entrance, providing accessibility for both tenants and patrons.
Original Tenants: A Hub of Commerce and Community
The 1891-1892 city directory provides a fascinating snapshot of the Pioneer Building‘s initial occupants, revealing a diverse mix of businesses and organizations that contributed to Seattle’s burgeoning commercial and civic life. The Puget Sound National Bank of Seattle established its presence at street level, occupying the prominent corner entrance at Front and James streets, symbolizing financial stability and growth. The second floor buzzed with entrepreneurial activity, hosting a series of businesses owned and operated by E. F. Wittler, J. D. Lowman, and W. H. Lowman, including the Union Trunk Line, a cable car company, indicative of the era’s advancements in transportation. Mc Mullen-Winsor Lumber Company also maintained offices on the second floor, reflecting the importance of the lumber industry in Seattle’s economy. The King County Medical Society convened in their office twice a month, underscoring the building’s role as a meeting place for professional communities. Grays Harbor Land and Improvement Company, located in rooms 230-231, further extended its community engagement by providing space for the King County Fair and Agricultural Association, bridging urban commerce with regional agriculture.
A. D. Cochrane (advertising) and F. A. Wood (accounting) also established their offices on the second floor, adding to the building’s diverse professional tenant base. The third floor housed the New England Northwestern Investment Company, indicative of Seattle’s growing appeal to national investors, as well as offices for G. A. Pidduck (advertising) and the Seattle Street Car Advertising Co., further emphasizing the advertising and transportation sectors. On the fourth floor, the Washington Realty Co. and architect Timotheus Josenhans maintained offices, highlighting the real estate and architectural professions. The fifth floor tenants included the Sidney Improvement Company; Central West, a weekly publication; and Duncombe & Bates, showcasing development, media, and business services. Artist C. E. Baldwin occupied a studio on the top floor, adding an artistic dimension to the building’s vibrant ecosystem, and demonstrating the building’s appeal across various sectors and professions.
Downtown Reimagined: Rebuilding and Regrading
It is truly remarkable how swiftly Seattle rebounded from the devastation of the Great Fire. As noted in Austin and Scott, Tacoma, 4, “Thirty days after the fire eighty-eight brick palaces, to cost over $5,000,000 are either under way or projected. . .” A significant portion of the commercial district was rapidly rebuilt using stone and masonry, prioritizing commercial buildings and hotels to restore economic activity and accommodate the influx of people and businesses. Wharves were reconstructed almost immediately to facilitate the arrival of essential building materials by sea, enabling the rapid pace of reconstruction. In fact, the rebuilding process proceeded so quickly that street regrading and utility replacements occurred after most of the new buildings had already been erected, a testament to the urgent need to restore the city’s infrastructure and commercial functionality.
Commercial Street, once the main thoroughfare of early Seattle, vanished beneath the regrade in the early 1890s, taking with it the first floors and adjacent sidewalks of many of the newly constructed post-fire buildings, including the Pioneer Building. The City implemented dramatic street grade changes in the vicinity of Yesler Way and southward, raising street levels from one to as much as 35 feet at 3rd S and Jackson Street. Structures were erected to contain the fill along the streets, and paving was laid over both the fill and the old sidewalks, creating what are now known as “areaways” or “underground Seattle,” a unique historical layer beneath the modern city. Sophie Frye Bass vividly describes this transformation in Pig-Tail Days in Old Seattle, 25:
“Commercial Street, now a forgotten street, had the name of First Avenue wished upon it in 1895. It stretches far out over made land where sea-gulls once swam and the unwary chee chacko (newcomer) who did not understand the ways of tides would be left in his canoe on a bed or ooze, not daring to walk, waiting for hours in the sun or rain – waiting for the turn of the tide to release him.”
The frenetic rebuilding of the old commercial district came to a halt with the financial panic of 1893, which cast a shadow over Seattle until the arrival of the Portland in July 1897, carrying “a ton of gold” from the Klondike, reigniting economic prosperity. Seattle experienced another boom, but by the time the Klondike gold rush peaked, the rebuilt commercial core proved too small to accommodate the city’s rapid expansion. The influx of new wealth spurred businesses to construct new buildings uptown, embracing more modern construction techniques, such as steel frames with exterior cladding, and contemporary architectural styles. Gradually, the post-fire buildings in the old commercial area were vacated over time. Some sustained damage in the 1949 earthquake, while others simply fell into disrepair due to neglect. By 1950, five of the Pioneer Building’s six floors stood empty, remaining vacant until 1974, reflecting a period of urban decline and changing economic landscapes.
Preservation versus Parking: A Battle for Seattle’s Soul
In the early 1960s, a wave of rediscovery and appreciation for what is now known as the Pioneer Square area began to emerge among a group of architects and developers. This area, encompassing the old post-fire commercial district including the Pioneer Building, was recognized for its historical and architectural significance. Ralph Anderson and Alan Black were among the pioneers of this preservation movement, initiating renovation projects on several properties in the district, recognizing their intrinsic value. Victor Steinbrueck, in his Seattle Cityscape sketchbook from 1962, captured the burgeoning enthusiasm for historic preservation through several sketches, including a prominent depiction of the Pioneer Building. Steinbrueck’s accompanying commentary in Seattle, 53, articulated the sentiment of the time:
“Rich and flavorsome old buildings associated with the pioneers stand proudly even though they are neglected at present. A fresh look at the interesting details and fine masonry is rewarding and suggests possibilities for sympathetic restoration.”
Hundreds of individuals—architects, developers, students, and concerned citizens—became captivated by the potential for restoring and celebrating this neglected architectural heritage. However, this preservationist vision faced opposition. During the early 1960s, an era when “urban renewal” often meant demolition and redevelopment across American cities, the Central Association proposed a drastically different future for Pioneer Square: razing the area and replacing its historic buildings, including the Pioneer Building, with parking garages to accommodate the growing car culture. In response, a non-profit organization of preservationists, Allied Arts of Seattle, championed the cause of restoration, advocating for the preservation of Pioneer Square’s unique character and historical fabric. This clash of visions set the stage for a pivotal moment in Seattle’s urban development history, pitting preservation against modernization.
Underground Tours and Culinary Renaissance
William (Bill) C. Speidel Jr. (1912-1988) and his wife Shirley played a crucial role in popularizing Pioneer Square and fostering its preservation. Already deeply interested in Seattle’s history, Bill was known for his popular guidebooks, You Can’t Eat Mt. Rainier, You Still Can’t Eat Mt. Rainier, and the Seattle Guide weekly, establishing him as a local historian and guide. Intrigued by local lore, they investigated rumors of hidden passageways and an “underground city” beneath the sidewalks of the old commercial district, including areas surrounding the Pioneer Building. Bill’s explorations confirmed the existence of underground sidewalks and the submerged first floors of buildings dating back to the 1890s street regrade, revealing a forgotten layer of Seattle’s urban past. Recognizing the public’s fascination with this hidden history, Bill saw an opportunity to mobilize support for preserving the area from demolition and parking development.
“Then in May, 1965, when the Junior Chamber of Commerce held its ‘Know Your Seattle Day,’ they persuaded us to conduct tours for one day at a buck a head.” As Bill and Shirley prepared for their first public tour, Pioneer Place Park “was packed with people holding dollar bills. We took 500 people on tours that day,” marking the beginning of the immensely popular Underground Tour and highlighting the public’s deep interest in Pioneer Square’s history. Soon after, the Speidels officially launched public tours, and the Pioneer Building became the operational heart of Underground Seattle Tours, cementing its role as a gateway to Seattle’s subterranean past. The Pioneer Building serves as the starting point for tourists embarking on a journey back in time through the underground sidewalks, remnants of the original commercial downtown before the city regrade, offering a unique historical experience.
The burgeoning popularity of the underground tours provided tangible evidence of public support for preservation. Presented with a petition bearing 100,000 signatures, the Seattle City Council responded decisively in May 1970, adopting an ordinance designating 20 square blocks in Pioneer Square as a Historic District, offering legal protection to its architectural heritage and ensuring the preservation of landmarks like the Pioneer Building (undergroundtour.com).
In 1969, adding another layer to Pioneer Square’s revitalization, Julia and Francois Kissel transformed the Pittsburgh Lunch on the first floor of the Pioneer Building into the Brasserie Pittsbourg Amadeus, an upscale French restaurant. This culinary venture delighted Seattleites and tourists alike with its exceptional French cuisine. As Charlotte Humphrey notes in Humphrey, Charlotte, 48, “Some consider it the start of the neighborhood’s commercial renaissance,” highlighting the restaurant’s catalytic role in Pioneer Square’s revival. The Brasserie indeed initiated a renaissance of fine dining throughout the city, establishing Pioneer Square as a destination for both history and gastronomy. In 1970, the Pioneer Square — Skid Road District, encompassing the Pioneer Building, was officially listed on the federal National Register of Historic Places (Number 70000086), further solidifying its national significance.
Rehabilitating a Landmark: The Pioneer Building Restored
Architect Ralph Anderson (1924-2010), a key figure in Pioneer Square’s preservation, had already successfully rehabilitated several buildings in the area, including the Union Trust and Grand Central buildings, before undertaking the ambitious restoration of the Pioneer Building in 1973 for the Theta Corporation. Larry Kreisman provides a detailed account of this transformative project in Kreisman, Seattle, 90-91:
“Although the structure was reasonably sound, roof leaks had seriously damaged the northwest corner of the building, requiring internal bracing and new supporting columns. The roof was completely redone, rotting floors and joists were replaced, the skylights were rebuilt, and the sheet metal cornice was completely reconstructed. The original hydraulic elevator shaft, turned into vaults for tenant use when the city’s first electric elevators were installed, was used to conceal the building’s new heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning systems. The two open-cage elevators were adjusted to accommodate safety glass enclosures to meet fire codes. Other work on the building to meet fire and seismic code requirements included installation of a sprinkler system, fire stairs, and a safety glass smoke relief panel in the skylights, tying back of parapet walls, reinforcing floors, and using metal tie rods to connect exterior walls to floors. Façade cleaning, patching, and repainting, terra-cotta repair, window replacement, new storefronts, and stripping and refinishing of doors, wainscoting, and staircase balusters turned the derelict building into the city’s premier example of restoration.”
This comprehensive renovation not only addressed structural issues but also meticulously preserved the extraordinary internal design of the office floors, which were uniquely open to natural light flooding in from two rooftop skylights through the building’s two atria, a distinctive architectural feature of the Pioneer Building. The restoration honored the building’s original design while modernizing its infrastructure and ensuring its long-term viability.
By 1977, Polk’s Seattle Street Directory documented a significant resurgence in the building’s occupancy, listing tenants on most floors, marking the success of the restoration efforts. Metro (Municipality of Metropolitan Seattle) occupied the entire fifth floor, reflecting a trend of government agencies supporting historic downtown revitalization by leasing space in these buildings. The first floor housed several restaurant offices and the information office for Metro, alongside the Brasserie Pittsbourg, indicating a mix of commercial and public sector tenants. William Speidel, his Seattle Guide Inc., and Nettle Creek Publishing were located on the third floor, maintaining a historical and publishing presence within the building. Metro’s water quality planners also occupied the third floor, while Metro’s long-term engineering consultants, Brown & Caldwell, were situated on the second floor, further diversifying the tenant mix. A variety of professionals occupied most of the other offices, although the fourth and sixth floors appeared to be vacant, possibly still undergoing renovation or tenant acquisition. The Pioneer Building, along with the Pergola, and Totem Pole, was further recognized for its historical importance, being listed as a National Historic Landmark (77001340), solidifying its place in American architectural and cultural history.
Today, the Pioneer Building remains a vibrant part of Pioneer Square. Visitors will find the Underground Tour offices within its walls, adjacent to Doc Maynard’s, just east of the Pioneer Square totem pole and pergola on 1st Avenue, continuing its legacy as a center for historical exploration. Pioneer Square Antiques & Collectables now occupies the former Brasserie Pittsbourg space, maintaining a commercial presence in the building’s historic fabric. Law offices are located in the old bank site on the corner of 1st Avenue and Yesler Way, reflecting the building’s continued relevance for professional services. Around the corner, Viajes Azteca, a travel agency, and Mercela’s, offering New Orleans-style cuisine, add to the diverse commercial ecosystem of the building and the surrounding neighborhood. Offices in the atria on the top floor provide space for a range of professionals, including lawyers, therapists, an economist, and an alternative health practitioner, demonstrating the Pioneer Building’s adaptability and enduring appeal as a prime location for contemporary businesses while preserving its rich historical significance.
Sources:
Jeffrey Karl Ochsner and Dennis Alan Andersen, Distant Corner: Seattle Architects and the Legacy of H.H. Richardson (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2003); Lawrence Kreisman, Made to Last: Historic Preservation in Seattle and King County (Seattle: Historic Seattle Preservation Foundation and University of Washington Press, 1999), 85, 90-92; Thomas W. Prosch, A Chronological History of Seattle From 1850 to 1897, typescript dated 1900 and 1901, Seattle Room (10th floor, downtown), The Seattle Public Library, Seattle; Lisa Mighetto and Marcia Montgomery, Hard Drive to the Klondike; Promoting Seattle During the Gold Rush (Seattle: University of Washington Press and Northwest Interpretive Association, 2002), 2-4; Sophie Frye Bass, Pig-Tail Days in Old Seattle (Portland: Binfords & Mort, 1937), 25; Victor Steinbrueck, Seattle Cityscape (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1962), 52-53; Maureen R. Elenga, Seattle Architecture: A Walking Guide to Downtown (Seattle: Seattle Architecture Foundation, 2007), 21-23; Walt Crowley with Paul Dorpat, National Trust Guide Seattle; America’s Guide for Architecture and History Travelers (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1998), 36-41; C. W. Austin and H. S. Scott, The Great Seattle Fire of June 6, 1889, (Tacoma, Puget Sound Printing [1889] 1965); Clark Humphrey, Vanishing Seattle (Charleston, SC: Arcadia Pub., 2006), 48; Corbett’s 1891-92 Seattle City Directory, (Seattle: Corbett & Co., 1892); Polk’s Seattle City Directory, (Seattle: 1974-1977); “History,” Seattle Underground Tours website accessed January 15, 2009 (http://www.undergroundtour.com/about/history.html); “Pioneer Building,” City of Seattle, Department of Neighborhoods, Historic Preservation, Historical Sites website accessed December 19, 2008 (http://web1.seattle.gov/dpd/historicalsite/QueryResult.aspx?ID=-1119623451); Pioneer Building website accessed December 19, 2008 (http://www.pioneer-building.com); “History of Pioneer Square,” City of Seattle, Department of Neighborhoods, Historic Preservation website accessed January 14, 2009 (http://www.seattle.gov/neighborhoods/preservation/pioneersquare_history.htm); Craig S. Bower, “Ralph Anderson,” Seattle Homes and Lifestyles website accessed January 15, 2009 (http://www.seattlehomesmag.com/Seattle-Homes-and-Lifestyles/February-2008/Ralph-Anderson/); Dean Stahl, “Taking the Long View,” Pacific Northwest Magazine, The Seattle Times, July 29, 2007 (http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/); Friends of Francois website accessed January 24, 2009 (http://www.friendsoffrancois.com); HistoryLink.org online Encyclopedia of Washington State History, “Underground Tours of Pioneer Square begin in August 1964” (by Walt Crowley), and “Fisher, Elmer H. (ca. 1840-1905)” (by Heather Macintosh), and Mutual Life Building Seattle (by Dotty DeCoster) http://www.historylink.org (accessed January 21, 2009).
