As we commemorate the contributions of pioneers, it is essential to recognize the monumental role of Mormon pioneers in developing artificial irrigation. Their innovative irrigation and agricultural practices stand as one of the most significant contributions to nation-building during their era. Led by Brigham Young, these settlers were the first of Anglo-Saxon descent to successfully implement artificial irrigation in America. The diversion of City Creek on July 23, 1847, to prepare the ground for planting marked a pivotal moment, transforming what was then considered an unpromising wasteland.
The settlement of the Salt Lake Valley coincided with crucial events like the end of the Mexican War, the Oregon Trail developments, the California Gold Rush, and the westward expansion facilitated by transcontinental railroads. The Mormon pioneers’ adoption of Pioneer Irrigation was undeniably a catalyst in this significant chapter of American history, paving the way for the development of the arid West.
Conquering Aridity: Pioneer Irrigation in the Great Basin
The Salt Lake Valley receives an average of only 16 inches of annual rainfall, with minimal precipitation during the critical summer growing season. Utah, with a statewide average of 14 inches, is the second driest state in the United States. Unfamiliar with such aridity, the Mormon pioneers had to innovate and establish an artificial irrigation and land management system. This system was not only crucial for their survival but also enabled them to flourish in a challenging environment. Their success in pioneer irrigation became a blueprint for others seeking to cultivate the arid landscapes of the West.
William E. Smythe, a prominent author and advocate for western land reclamation, championed the Mormon pioneers’ achievements in irrigation as a model for reclaiming the arid West. As a national voice for developing lands west of the hundredth meridian—a line demarcating areas of sufficient rainfall from arid regions—Smythe highlighted the pioneers’ successful irrigation efforts in the Great Basin. In his influential book, “The Conquest of Arid America” (1900), he lauded the Mormon settlers as “…pioneer irrigators of the United States.” Smythe firmly believed that the West could be transformed through irrigation methods pioneered by the Mormons. He noted, “…when studied in connection with Mormon colonization, it is plain that the [irrigation] system was born of the necessities of the place and time–that it is the legitimate product of the peculiar environment of the arid region. The forces that have made the civilization of Utah will make the civilization of western America.”
The Strength of Unity: Community-Driven Pioneer Irrigation
Elwood Mead, Chief of Irrigation for the U.S. Department of Agriculture, in his “1903 Investigation Report,” underscored the isolation faced by the Mormon pioneers. They settled a region far removed from eastern settlements and nearly as distant from California, surrounded by formidable deserts. Survival and prosperity under such harsh conditions demanded exceptional resilience and unity. The Mormon pioneers distinguished themselves through their unparalleled cooperation and discipline, essential for the success of their pioneer irrigation systems. Without this collective ethos, the Mormon settlement in the desert might have faltered, altering the course of history.
Mead emphasized the pervasive influence of the Mormon Church in the Great Basin settlement. He observed, “In the early years of the settlement there was no provision for acquiring legal titles to either land or water, and without the supervision of the church authorities, acting as arbiters and advisors, there would have been no rule except that of forced.” The Mormon pioneers were remarkably unified, driven by shared faith and leadership. They collectively constructed stockades, dug irrigation ditches, and managed crops. This cohesiveness, fostered by the Church, was vital for conquering the desert and supporting a growing population.
Brigham Young, as the religious leader, and the High Council, handling secular administration, directed this effort. Ward bishops served as local leaders, implementing policies at the community level. Water management was decentralized, with each ward bishop overseeing water distribution within their ward. Residents, under the bishop’s guidance, built ditches to deliver water to individual blocks. Bishops also regulated water allocation and resolved disputes. For larger canals serving multiple wards, Brigham Young and the High Council planned the infrastructure, while ward bishops mobilized their congregations for construction.
After Salt Lake City’s incorporation in 1851, water control shifted to municipal authorities. However, across the vast 210,000 square miles of the Great Basin, Brigham Young continued to direct settlement. He strategically selected sites for new towns, surveyed them into square blocks, and allocated city and farm lots to settlers. Families and tradesmen were assigned to these new communities to establish self-sufficiency through pioneer irrigation and diverse skills. This systematic approach led to the establishment of 365 colonies in the Great Basin, earning Brigham Young the title of “Colonizer” or “America’s Moses.”
Pioneering Water and Land Management Policies
Brigham Young’s water and land policies were groundbreaking for his time, crucial for sustaining large settlements in the untested and challenging western desert. Mead noted, “We find that the Mormon settlers in the valley of the Great Salt Lake pioneers indeed — settlers in a new country without established government and requiring a new system of irrigation engineering and agriculture. The absence of laws or established custom left them free to develop their institutions without the necessity of conforming to established rules, while the authority of the church which dealt with both religious and civil affairs prevented those conflicts over title to both land and water which would have otherwise have arisen.” Over time, water law evolved beyond ecclesiastical control through civil processes.
Smythe attributed Brigham Young’s success to his departure from the large farm sizes common in the East. While the average U.S. farm in 1850 exceeded 200 acres, pioneer farms were typically 10 acres or less. Young’s policy prioritized land and water allocation based on beneficial use rather than speculative accumulation. Smythe suggested this was also to reserve resources for future waves of emigrants expected to settle in the region.
A significant legal innovation was Brigham Young’s shift from English “riparian rights” to “prior appropriations for beneficial use.” Riparian rights granted water access to landowners bordering watercourses. In contrast, Young’s doctrine established “first in time, first in right,” granting water rights to the first to appropriate water for beneficial purposes. This became a cornerstone of Western water law.
The Bureau of Reclamation estimated that by 1865, Mormon pioneers had constructed diversion dams, ditches, and canals irrigating 1.5 million acres for crops. Driven by “religious zeal and dedication,” they achieved a “remarkable transformation of the desert,” building 1,000 miles of canals by 1865. Utah’s population grew dramatically from 65,000 to 280,000 by 1900, fueled by the success of pioneer irrigation.
Smaller farm sizes, innovative water laws, strong church leadership, and the unwavering faith of its members were crucial to the Mormon pioneers’ success in the arid Great Basin. This unique combination of factors enabled the Mormon colonization, a feat unlikely under any other circumstances. While emulating their success proved challenging, the lessons learned from Mormon pioneer irrigation became the foundation for federal reclamation legislation.
The 1902 Reclamation Act: A National Legacy of Pioneer Irrigation
The late 19th century saw growing national interest in western development, drawing political attention to the Mormon pioneer irrigation model. Their success positioned the region as a hub of irrigation expertise. Reclamation advocates nationwide lauded Mormon achievements. The first National Irrigation Congress convened in Salt Lake City in 1891, attracting those keen on western development. A key resolution urged Congress to allocate public land to states and territories for irrigation development, aiming to transform arid lands into fertile, populated regions.
In 1890, the vast majority of the U.S. population lived east of the Mississippi, with a scant few million in the West. Pressure mounted to settle the West. Federal investments in infrastructure like roads, rivers, and railroads bolstered the Reclamationists’ push for federal support to reclaim the western half of the nation through water storage and irrigation projects. By 1890, the irrigation movement gained bipartisan political traction. Legislation, drafted by Congressman Francis G. Newlands and supported by President Theodore Roosevelt, led to the Reclamation Act, passed on June 17, 1902. This act mandated that water users repay project construction costs.
The Mormon pioneer irrigation experience was instrumental in shaping western reclamation. Marc Reisner, in his 1986 book “Cadillac Desert,” wrote of early Utah irrigation, “Without realizing it, they were laying the foundation of the most ambitious desert civilization the world has seen. In the New World … the Mormons attacked the desert full-bore, flooded it, subverted its dreadful indifference–moralized it — until they had made a Mesopotamia in America between the valleys of the Green River and middle Snake.” He added, “In …1902 the United States government launched its own irrigation program, based on Mormon experience, guided by Mormon laws, run largely by Mormons.”
The 1902 Reclamation Act spurred irrigation development across 17 western states. The Bureau of Reclamation built 600 dams and reservoirs, providing irrigation for 9.2 million acres, drinking water for over 31 million people, and hydroelectric power. Federal reclamation transformed both eastern and western regions into integral parts of a prosperous nation.
Utah’s pioneer irrigation legacy continued into the 20th century through federal projects like the Strawberry Project (1907) and the Central Utah Project. These initiatives developed significant water resources for municipal, industrial, and agricultural use, serving millions of people and irrigating hundreds of thousands of acres. The Bureau of Reclamation invested billions in Utah, constructing numerous dams and water projects. In 1935, Salt Lake City formed the Metropolitan Water District to manage its share of the Provo River Project, securing a vital water supply for the future.
Reclamation projects have supported the West’s population growth to approximately 86 million, about a third of the U.S. total. California, with its massive population, exemplifies the crucial role of water development and pioneer irrigation principles in sustaining western populations.
Evolving Perspectives on Pioneer Irrigation
Today, views on irrigation have shifted. Increased competition for water resources for environmental and urban needs has led to public questioning of large-scale irrigation projects. The Bureau of Reclamation no longer focuses on dam construction, and some existing dams face calls for removal. Agricultural irrigation practices, like flood irrigation and alfalfa cultivation, are criticized as wasteful. Symbols of desert extravagance, like Las Vegas, raise concerns about water misuse. Water transfers, irrigation efficiency improvements, and conservation efforts are now prioritized over new water development. The Central Utah Project may represent the end of large federal reclamation projects. Modern agriculture yields abundant food supplies, with surpluses exported globally. In Utah, however, farmland is rapidly giving way to urbanization, especially along the Wasatch Front, as development encroaches on agricultural lands. Canal water rights are sold to developers, diminishing Brigham Young’s vision of agricultural self-sufficiency.
Despite contemporary debates, it is vital to remember the historical context and immense contributions of our ancestors. As we celebrate our heritage, we should honor the struggles and achievements of the Mormon pioneers in transforming the arid West through pioneer irrigation. Their legacy, viewed in the context of their era, is a testament to their vision and resilience in building the West and shaping modern America. The water resources they developed, and those later expanded by the Bureau of Reclamation, continue to provide essential municipal drinking water today.
Selected References
- Water for the West – The Bureau of Reclamation 1902-1977, Michael C. Robinson
- The Conquest of Arid American, William E. Smythe, Harper & Brothers Publishers, 1900
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 124, “Report of Irrigation Investigations in Utah,” Elwood Mead, Washington Government Printing Office, 1903
- Bureau of Reclamation, http:www.usbr.gov/ “The Bureau of Reclamation – A Brief History
- Cadillac Desert, The American West And Its Disappearing Water, Marc Reisner, Penguin Books, 1986
- Brigham Young the Colonizer, Milton R. Hunter, Peregrine Smith Inc. Santa Barbara & Salt Lake City, 1973
